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Sastra pramanam

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Hindu philosophical concept

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In Hinduism, Sastra pramanam refers to the authority of the scriptures (sruti, Vedas) with regard to purusartha, the objects of human pursuit, namely dharma (right conduct), artha (means of life), kama (pleasure) and moksa (liberation).[1] Together with smrti ("that which is remembered, tradition": Dharmasastra, Hindu Epics, Puranas), acara (good custom), and atmatusti ("what is pleasing to oneself"), it provides pramana (means of knowledge) and sources of dharma, as expressed in Classical Hindu law, philosophy, rituals and customs.

The first two are undisputed epistemic sources (pramana), where sruti holds the ultimate or supreme authority as Sastra pramanam, while there is difference of opinion for acara and atmatusti.

Etymology

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Pramana literally means "proof" and is also a concept and field of Indian philosophy. The concept is derived from the Sanskrit roots, pra (pr), a preposition meaning "outward" or "forth", and ma (maa) which means "measurement". Prama means "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, understand", with pramana being a further nominalization of the word.[2][3] Thus, the concept Pramana implies that which is a "means of acquiring prama or certain, correct, true knowledge".[4]

Shastra commonly refers to a treatise or text on a specific field of knowledge. In early Vedic literature, the word referred to any precept, rule, teaching, ritual instruction or direction.[5] In late and post Vedic literature of Hinduism, Shastra referred to any treatise, book or instrument of teaching, any manual or compendium on any subject in any field of knowledge, including religious.[5] It is often a suffix, added to the subject of the treatise, such as Yoga-Shastra, Nyaya-Shastra, Dharma-Shastra, Koka- or Kama-Shastra,[6] Moksha-Shastra, Artha-Shastra, Alamkara-Shastra (rhetoric), Kavya-Shastra (poetics), Sangita-Shastra (music), Natya-Shastra (theatre & dance) and others.[5][7]

With regard to sastra pramanam is refers to the authority to the Vedic scriptures, as expressed in Bhagavadgita chapter 16, verse 24, where Krishna commands Arjuna to follow the authority of the scriptures:[8][9]

tasmat sastram pramanam te karyakarya vyavasthitau
jnatva sastravidhanoktam karma kartumiharhasi

Therefore, let the (vedic) scriptures (sastram) be your authority (pramanam) in determining what should be done and what should not be done.
Understand the scriptural injunctions and teachings, and then perform your actions in this world accordingly.[10][note 1]

Sruti, smriti, acara and atmatusti are also the four sources of dharma in classical Hindu law, as expressed in Bhavishya Purana, Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7:

vedah smrtih sadacarah svasya ca priyamatmanah
etaccaturvidham prahuh sakshaddharmasya lakshanam

Vedas, smritis, good (approved) tradition and what is agreeable to one's soul (conscience),
the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma.[11][note 2]

The explanation of that sloka has been given in the digest (nibandha), bala nibandhadarsa: there in dharma, vedas are the only chief pramana. Smritis dissect (analyze) the essence of vedas only. Both of them support Sadacara. Atmasantusti that is favourable to all these is (then) dharma pramana.[12] [note 3]

Sruti

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Main articles: Sruti and Sabda

Shruti (Sanskrit: shruti, IAST: Sruti, IPA: [crUtI]) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" and refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism.[13] They are the ultimate epistemic authority or mula pramana (or prathama pramana). Manusmriti states that Srutistu vedo vigneyah (Sanskrit: shrutistu vedo vijnyey:, lit. means "Know that Vedas are Sruti"). Thus, it includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts--the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanisads.[14][15] Bhagavad Gita is also referred as Gitopanisad, thereby according it the status of Upanishad (i.e. Sruti), even though it is originally part of smrti.[16][17][18]

Vedic Sages such as Baudhayana, Parasara, Vedavyasa, Gautama,[note 4] Vasistha,[note 5] Apastamba,[note 6] Manu,[note 7] and Yajnavalkya have adhered this view in their works.

The main schools of Indian philosophy that reject the (epistemic authority of) Vedas were regarded as Nastika, i.e. heterodox in the tradition.[21]

Smriti

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Main article: Smriti

Smriti (Sanskrit: smRti, IAST: Smrti) is considered as the penultimate epistemic authority or dvitiya pramana. Smriti literally means "that which is remembered" and it a body of Hindu texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down, in contrast to Srutis (the Vedic literature) considered authorless, that were transmitted verbally across the generations and fixed.[14] Smriti is a derivative secondary work and is considered less authoritative than Sruti in Hinduism, except in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy.[13][22][23] The authority of smriti accepted by orthodox schools, is derived from that of shruti, on which it is based.[24][25]

The Smrti literature is a corpus of diverse varied texts.[13] This corpus includes, but is not limited to the six Vedangas (the auxiliary sciences in the Vedas), the Itihasas (i.e. the Mahabharata and Ramayana), the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras (or Smritisastras), the Arthasasastras, the Puranas, the Kavya or poetical literature, extensive Bhasyas (reviews and commentaries on Shrutis and non-Shruti texts), and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics (Nitisastras),[26] culture, arts and society.[27][28]

Each Smriti text exists in many versions, with many different readings.[14] Smritis were considered fluid and freely rewritten by anyone in ancient and medieval Hindu tradition.[14][22]

The authors of 18 smritis are namely, Atri, Visnu, Harita, Ausanasi, Angirasa, Yama, Apastamba, Samvartta, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Sankha, Likhita,[note 8] Daksa, Gautama, Satatapa and Vasistha.[29] Yajnavalkya gives the list of total 20 by adding two more Smritis, namely, Yajnavalkya and Manu.[30][31][note 9] Parasara whose name appears in this list, enumerates also twenty authors, but instead of Samvartta, Brhaspati, and Vyasa, he gives the names of Kasyapa, Bhrgu and Prachetas.

Puranas

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Apastamba and Vyasa considers the puranas as antepenultimate epistemic authority or trtiya pramana. In Apastambasmrti, it has been mentioned as[note 10]

yat adrstam hi vedesu tat drastavyam smrtau kila
ubhabhyam yat adrstastu tat puranesu pathyate

Whenever there is no reference in vedas then smrtis are to be referred.
In case references are absent in them both, then puranas are to be consulted.[note 11]

Vyasasmrti (verse 1.5) state that

srutismrtipuranokta dharmayogyastu netare

The sayings of Vedas, smrtis and puranas are deemed to be dharma and not others.[note 12]

Acara

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Main article: Acara

Acara (Sanskrit: aacaar), also sistachara or sadachara, is a concept used in the context of Classical Hindu law that refers to the customary laws or community norms of a particular social group.[34] These community norms are delineated and put into practice by people who have earned the respect of those within each individual group, such as a community leader or elder. Although in Dharmasastra the ideal person who defines the acara of a particular place is dictated as one who knows the Vedas or is "learned", in actual practice this role is often deferred to group leaders along with Vedic scholars.[35] Acara is theologically important in classical Hindu law because it is considered, along with the Vedas (Sruti), and Smriti (traditional texts such as the Dharmasastra literature), to be one of the sources of dharma.[36] Particular regional acara is believed to be canonized in Dharmasastra texts; however scholars differ on the source for the actual accounts found within these texts.[37]

The Anusasana-parva of the Mahabharata states:

dharmam jijnasamananam pramanam prathamam srutih
dvitiyam dharmasastram tu trtiyo lokasangrahah

Those who have the 'desire to know dharma' (dharma jijnasa), the first pramana is sruti.
The second pramana are the dharmasastras (i.e. the dharma part of smrti). The third reference is as per the custom of the people.[note 13]

To Parasara[note 14], Manu, Yajnavalkya, Vasistha and Baudhayana, the virtuous conduct of Sistas (virtuous learned men) and practice of good men, Sadachara is the antepenultimate epistemic authority or trtiya pramana after Srutis and Smrtis.[38] Vasisthasmrti verse 1.4 quotes, tadalabhe sistacharah pramanam, i.e. only if the relevant references are absent in those both, then Sista Achara can be considered as Antepenultimate pramana. According to the sage Vasistha, Sruti and Smrti are more important sources than others.[39] The Padma Purana also prescribes as similar view.[note 15]

While citing Sistagama[note 16] (lit. that which has come down from Sistas) as the antepenultimate authority after Vedas and smirtis by Baudhayana in his smriti (verse 1.5), the Sistas are defined thus:-Sistas (indeed are those) who are free from envy (vigatamatsarah), free from pride (nirahankarah), contented with a store of grain sufficient for ten days (kumbhidhanyah), free from covetousness (alolupah), and free from hypocrisy (damba), arrogance (darpa), greed (lobha), perplexity (confusion) and anger (krodha).[42]

Kumarila Bhatta, prominent Mimamsa scholar from early medieval India states in his Tantravartika:

If the practices of good men (Sadachara) are not in conflict with what is taught in the veda and smrti, such practices can be regarded as authoritative in matters relating to dharma, but when there is the least thing repugnant to the teaching of the Veda, then, as there would be a conflict of authorities, the practices cannot be regarded as any authority at all.[43]

Atmatusti

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Main article: Atmatusti

Atmastuti is usually translated into English as being "what is pleasing to oneself."[44] The first three sources of law are rooted in the vedas, whereas Atmatusti is not. It is because of this that Atmatusti, as a fourth source (i.e. caturtha pramana), is not recognized by most scholars due to the lack of legitimacy. Only Manu and Yajnavalkya refer to Atmatusti as the fourth source of dharma within the Hindu Law tradition. Textual accounts of Manu's and Yajnavalkya's placement of Atmatusti as a fourth source of dharma can be found in The Law Code of Manu 2.6 and The Law Code of Yajnavalkya 1.7. Also, Atmatusti does not share the same authority as sruti, smriti, and acara. Atmatusti differs significantly from the other three sources of dharma in that it is not based on an "authority exterior to man"; in other words, an individual is able to create their own authority for any issue not covered under sruti, smriti, and acara.[45]

Atmatusti is also known as Hrdayanujna (free will) is mentioned also by Manu, Yajnavalkya and Vishnu distinctly mention this as a or source of moral and religion knowledge.[46] Yajnavalkya goes further step adding good intent (samyaksamkalpa) as additional fifth source of Dharma:

srutih smrtih sadacarah svasya ca priyam atmanah
samyaksamkalpajah kamo dharmamulam idam smrtam

The source of dharma is declared to be fivefold: 1) srutih; 2) smrtih; sadacarah (right conduct); svasya ca priyam atmanah (one's own benefit) and
5) desire born of purposeful intention (samyaksamkalpajah kamah).[47][note 17]

Later, samyaksamkalpa (Pali: samma sankappa) was included among the Noble Eightfold Path (aryastangamarga) putforth by Gautama Buddha.[49]

Instances of conflict

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Conflict between different epistemic sources, generally termed as virodha. When there is an instance of conflict between the smriti and the sruti, the sruti shall prevail.[50][note 18] Similarly, Whenever there is conflict between different epistemic sources in general, then as per Apastamba, it is advised to refer more preceding epistemic sources as they hold more authority. In Apastambasmrti, it is mentioned as

srutismrtipuranesu viruddhesu parasparam
purvam purvam baliyam syaditi nyayavido viduh

Whenever there is mutual conflict between vedas, smrtis and puranas, then the ones well-versed in nyaya suggest that
more preceding epistemic source holds higher weightage (than the later epistemic one)[note 19]

Vedavyasa also holds a similar view in his vyasasmrti, verse 1.4

sruti smrti puranam virodho yatra drisyate tatra srotam pramanastu tayordhvyadhe smrtirvara

In cases where conflicts are apparent among veda, smriti and Purana, Veda is the valid authority; and where remaining two (Smriti and Purana) are in conflict, Smriti is the valid authority[51][note 20]

Prasthanatrayi

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Main article: Prasthanatrayi

The Prasthanatrayi (Sanskrit: prsthaantryii, IAST: Prasthanatrayi) are the three canonical texts of Hindu theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools, namely the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. Prasthanatrayi can viewed as subset of Hindu epistemic sources. Vedanta is also known as Uttara Mimamsa is one of the six (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy. These six schools are traditionally referred as shad-darsanas as they give their own points of view on the Hindu scriptures. Vedanta school is based on Brahma Sutras (Sanskrit: brhm suutr) of Badarayana. Adi Sankara who propagated Advaita has established the concept of Prasthanatrayi, the epistemic references based on Sastra pramanam in Hinduism. Along with Brahma sutras, upanishads are considered from Vedas and Bhagavad gita is chosen from Mahabharata, which is Itihasa (i.e. part of smriti).[53] The same has been accepted by all other acharyas of other vedanta schools such as Ramanuja, Madhwa, etc.

Modern usage and criticism

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Sastra pramanam has been used by social reformers for 19th century from Bengal such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.[54] He was the most prominent campaigner for widow remarriage and was supported in this by many wise and elite gentlemen of the society and the first signatory on his application to the then Governor General was Shri Kasinath Dutta, belonging to the Hatkhola Dutta lineage. He petitioned in legislative council and was responsible for Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856.[55] In the same century, Similar effort from south India was carried by social reformers such as Kandukuri Veeresalingam pantulu[note 21] and Gurazada Apparao to eradicate social evils.

B. R. Ambedkar has criticized the rigidity of sastra pramanam in Hinduism in his work Annihilation of Caste by attacking especially on Manusmriti.[56] In order to prevent child marriages among Hindus, The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929. Sastra pramanam was considered by Hindu pandits appointed by the age of consent committee to fix the age of marriage of girl child and then it was fixed to be 14 later by Sarda Act.[57]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Yajna, a Comprehensive Survey. Yoga Publications Trust. 2007. p. 338. ISBN 9788186336472.
  2. ^ prmaa Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  3. ^ John A. Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 237-238
  4. ^ pramANa Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  5. ^ a b c Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on zAstra
  6. ^ Alex Comfort and Charles Fowkes (1993), The Illustrated Koka Shastra: Medieval Indian Writings on Love Based on the Kama Sutra, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0684839813
  7. ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shastra" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 626
  8. ^ Universal Message of the Bhagavad Gita. Advaita Ashrama. 2000. p. 599. ISBN 9788175059337.
  9. ^ Bhagavad-gita As It Is (in Sanskrit and English), translated by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1968, Chapter 16, verse 24, LCCN 68008322, Wikidata Q854700
  10. ^ Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God, translated by Mukundananda, Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog, Chapter 16, verse 24, ASIN B0747RJJNG, Wikidata Q108659922
  11. ^ "eeddv adhyaaymu - 7. vivaah dhrm vrnnnmu".
  12. ^ baal nibndhaadrshH (bala nibandhadarsa). Motilal Banarsidass. 2000. p. 68. ISBN 9788175059337.
  13. ^ a b c James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 656-657
  14. ^ a b c d Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-1867-6, pages 2-3
  15. ^ A Bhattacharya (2006), Hinduism: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556, pages 8-14
  16. ^ Veena R. Howard (2017). Dharma: The Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and Sikh Traditions of India. I.B.Tauris. p. 73. ISBN 9781786732125.
  17. ^ Steven Rosen (2011). The Jedi in the Lotus: Star Wars and the Hindu Tradition. Arktos Media Ltd. p. 73. ISBN 9781907166112.
  18. ^ Graham M. Schweig (2010). Bhagavad Gita: The Beloved Lord's Secret Love Song. Harper Collins. ISBN 9780062065025.
  19. ^ Kedar Nath Tiwari (1998). Classical Indian Ethical Thought: A Philosophical Study of Hindu, Jaina, and Buddhist Morals. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 9788120816084.
  20. ^ Apastamba Dharmasutram (Sanskrit), Dr. Umeshchandra Pandey, Chaukamba Press (Varanasi), 1969
  21. ^ Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 82. ISBN 9780521438780.
  22. ^ a b Sheldon Pollock (2011), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia (Editor: Federico Squarcini), Anthem, ISBN 978-0857284303, pages 41-58
  23. ^ Harold G. Coward; Ronald Neufeldt; Eva K. Neumaier-Dargyay (1988). Readings in Eastern Religions. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-88920-955-8.; Quote: "smriti is classified as being based on (and therefore less authoritative than) the directly revealed, shruti, literature.";
    Anantanand Rambachan (1991). Accomplishing the Accomplished. University of Hawaii Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-8248-1358-1.;
    Ronald Inden; Jonathan S. Walters; et al. (2000). Querying the Medieval: Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia. Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-512430-9.
  24. ^ Rene Guenon (2009). The Essential Ren' Gu'non: Metaphysics, Tradition, and the Crisis of Modernity. World Wisdom, Inc. pp. 164-. ISBN 978-1-933316-57-4.
  25. ^ Pollock, Sheldon (2012). "The Revelation of Tradition: sruti, smrti, and the Sanskrit Discourse of Power". In Squarcini, Federico (ed.). Boundaries, Dynamics And Construction Of Traditions In South Asia. London: Anthem Press. pp. 41-62. doi:10.7135/upo9781843313977.003. ISBN 978-1-84331-397-7.
  26. ^ smRti Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
  27. ^ Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130
  28. ^ Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824820855, pages 16-18
  29. ^ "Astadasasmrtayah". Ksemaraja Srikrsnadasa. Venkatesvara Steam Press, Mumbai. 1910.
  30. ^ "The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany". Wm. H. Allen & Company. Parbury, Allen & Co. 1828. p. 156.
  31. ^ "Tattwabodhini Sabha and the Bengal Renaissance". Amiyakumar Sen. Publication Section, Sadharan Brahmo Samajo. 1979. p. 291.
  32. ^ "arth yaajnyvlkysmRtiH prthm prcaaraadhyaayH upoddhaatprkrnnm" [Meaning The Yajnavalkya Smriti, the first chapter of the preaching, is the chapter on the Upoddhata] (PDF) (in Sanskrit). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-08.
  33. ^ Kandukuri Vireesalingam (1882). stri punarvivaha sastrasangrahamu (PDF). p. 686.
  34. ^ Davis, Jr. Donald R. Chapter One.
  35. ^ Davis, Jr. Donald R. Chapter Seven
  36. ^ Davis, Jr. Donald R. Chapter One
  37. ^ Lariviere, Richard W. 1997. pp. 612.
  38. ^ S. K. Purohit (1994). Ancient Indian legal philosophy: its relevance to contemporary jurisprudential thought. Deep & Deep Publications. p. 34. ISBN 9788171005833.
  39. ^ Rajadharma in Mahabharata: With Special Reference to Shanti-Parva. DK Print World (P) Ltd. 2019. ISBN 9788124610084.
  40. ^ Guru: The Universal Teacher. Simon and Schuster. 2017. ISBN 9781683832454.
  41. ^ "baudhaaynsmRti" [Baudhayanasmriti] (PDF). www.astrojyoti.com (in Sanskrit).
  42. ^ "baadhaaynsmRti" [Obstruction memory] (PDF) (in Hindi). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-11-05.
  43. ^ Kedar Nath Tiwari (1998). Classical Indian Ethical Thought: A Philosophical Study of Hindu, Jaina, and Buddhist Morals. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 17-18. ISBN 9788120816084.
  44. ^ Olivelle, Patrick. 2004. The Law Code of Manu. 2.6.
  45. ^ Lingat 1973, p. 6.
  46. ^ "Journal & Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 6". Asiatic Society. 1911. p. 300.
  47. ^ Ajay K. Rao (2015). Re-figuring the Ramayana as Theology: A History of Reception in Premodern India. Routledge. ISBN 9781134077427.
  48. ^ "Yajnavalkya-Smrti (Plain text)".
  49. ^ Ajahn Brahm (27 May 2018). "Word of the Buddha".
  50. ^ Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. Routledge. 2006. p. 503. ISBN 9781134691159.
  51. ^ Hindu Widow Marriage. Columbia University Press. 2012. p. 67. ISBN 9780231526609.
  52. ^ "arth yaajnyvlkysmRtiH prthm prcaaraadhyaayH upoddhaatprkrnnm" [Meaning The Yajnavalkya Smriti, the first chapter of the preaching, is the chapter on the Upoddhata] (PDF) (in Sanskrit). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-08.
  53. ^ Vepa, Kosla. The Dhaarmik Traditions. Indic Studies Foundation.
  54. ^ Ishvarchandra Vidyasagar (translated by Brian A. Hatcher) (2012). Hindu Widow Marriage. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231526609.
  55. ^ Chakraborty, Uma (2003). Gendering caste through a feminist lens. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-85604-54-1. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  56. ^ Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, 1936. Anhilation of Caste. p. 54
  57. ^ "The Child Marriage Restraint Act (Act XIX of 1929)" (PDF). A. S. Srinivasa Aiyyar. The Law Publishing Company, Mylapore, Madras. 1930.

Notes

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  1. ^ tsmaat shaastrN prmaannN te kaaryaakaaryvyvsthitau / jnyaatvaa shaastrvidhaanoktN krm krtumihaarhsi //
  2. ^ vedH smRtiH sdaacaarH svsy c priymaatmnH / etccturvidhN praahuH saakssaaddhrmsy lkssnnm //
  3. ^ ttr dhrme mukhyN prmaannN ved ev / vedaarthmev visklynti smRtiH / tdubhy smrthitshc aacaarH / tdnukuulaiv c aatmsntusstti dhrme prmaannm //
  4. ^ Gautama dharmasutras state that Vedo dharmamulam tadvidam ca smrtisile (lit. means "Vedas are primary source of our moral ideals and beliefs. After vedas, the authority of smrti is accepted in this respect").[19]
  5. ^ Vasistha Dharmasutra state that srutismrti vihito dharmah (lit. means "Vedas and smrtis taken together have been regarded as source of dharma (of course, the former given the first preference).
  6. ^ Apastamba Dharmasutram state that veda eva mulapramanam dharmadharmayoh (Sanskrit: vedaa ev muulprmaannN dhrmaadhrmyoH, lit. means "Vedas alone is primary source (mulapramanam ) for dharma and adharma.").[20]
  7. ^ Manusmriti states that Srutistu vedo vigneyah (lit. means "Know that Vedas are Sruti").
  8. ^ Sankha, Likhita are brothers, and wrote each a smriti separately, and another jointly, and the three now considered as only one work.
  9. ^ manvatrivisnuharita yajnavalkya angirah
    yamapastambasamvartah katyayanabrhaspati
    parasaravyasasankhalikhita daksagautamo
    satatapovasisthasca dharmasastrayojakah     (Yajnavalkyasmrti (1.4, 1.5))
    (Sanskrit: mnvtrivissnnuhaariit yaajnyvlkyo'nggiraaH / ymaapstmbsmvrtaaH kaatyaaynbRhsptii // praashrvyaasshngkhlikhitaa dkssgautmo / shaataatpovshisstthshc dhrmshstryojkaaH // [32])
  10. ^ Prominent social reformer Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu has quoted these slokas from Apastambasmrti in his Telugu essay on widow remarriage, stri punarvivaha sastrasangrahamu.[33]
  11. ^ yddRssttm hi vedessu tt drssttvyN smRtau kil / ubhaabhyaaN yddRssttstu tt puraannessu ptthyte //
  12. ^ shrutismRtipuraannoktdhrmyogyaastu netre //
  13. ^ dhrmN jijnyaasmaanaanaaN prmaannN prthmN shrutiH / dvitiiyN dhrmshaastrN tu tRtiiyo loksNgrhH //
  14. ^ Parasarasmrti (1.20) mentions that srutismrtisadacaranirnetarsca sarvada (Sanskrit:shrutismRtisdaacaarnirnnetaarshc srvdaa // lit. means "Sruti, Smrti and Sadacara are always the deciders.")
  15. ^ The Padma Purana as quoted in Bhakti-Sandarbhah states Srutismrti mamaivajne yaste ullanghya vartate, Ajnacchedi mama dvesi madbhakto'pi na vaisnavah (Sanskrit:shrutismRtii mmaivaajnye yste ullngghy vrtte / aajnyaacchedii mm dvessii mdbhkto'pi n vaissnnvH // lit. means "Sruti and Smrti are in truth My commands. Whoever transgresses them, disobeys Me and is a hater of Me. Though a devotee, He is not a votary of Visnu.").[40]
  16. ^ upavisto dharmah prativedam tasyanuvyakhyasyamah smarto dvitiyah trtiyah sistagamah Baudhayana smriti (1.1 to 1-4)
    (Sanskrit:upvisstto dhrmH prtivedm / tsyaanuvyaakhyaasyaamH / smaarto dvitiiyH / tRtiiyH shissttaagmH / ).[41]
  17. ^ shrutiH smRtiH sdaacaarH svsy c priyN aatmnH / smyksNklpjH kaamo dhrmmuulN idN smRtm // [48]
  18. ^ : shrutismRti virodhe tu shrutirev griiysii // (srutismrti virodhe tu srutireva gariyasi)
  19. ^ shrutismRtipuraannessu viruddhessu prsprm / puurvN puurvN bliiyN syaaditi nyaayvido viduH //
  20. ^ shrutismRti puraannaaN virodho ytr drishyte / ttr shrotN prmaannaastu tyordhvydhe smRtirvraa // [52]
  21. ^ In 1882 Telugu essay on widow remarriage, stri punarvivaha sastrasangrahamu

Sources

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  • Davis, Jr. Donald R. Forthcoming. Spirit of Hindu Law
  • Lingat, Robert (1973), The Classical Law of India, University of California Press

Further reading

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  • Domenico Francavilla (2006), The roots of hindu jurisprudence: sources of Dharma and interpretation in Mimamsa and Dharmasastra
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